It would seem to be a rather simple task to create geometric shapes and volumes using ball-bearing-like entities, such as those dictated by ultrawave theory, but that is far from true. As is shown on the “H2O (Water and Ice)” page, the atoms that form water must convert to ice by rotating the alignment and positions of the atoms. This simple change forces a volumetric range for the packing of single element atoms that is defined by the equations for the two extremes, which are 16/3*pi*r^3 for tightly packed spheres and pi*(2*r)^3 for cubic aligned spheres. The ratio of the two equations is 2/3, meaning that our range of answers to any question regarding the determination of atom sizes has this large uncertainty included. It is essential to find a way to predict which one of these two extremes is correct for any particular atom, or to determine if a value is permitted that lies somewhere between these two extremes.

An equally troublesome issue is the size changes that occur when atoms combine. For example, when oxygen combines with hydrogen, they both shrink to a size that is very much smaller than when they were gases. It is even possible to go in the opposite direction, such as when making carbon dioxide, where the carbon become a gaseous atom, or even if it doesn’t become gaseous, which is very doubful, it does not significantly shrink the size of the oxygen atoms when combining with them. The less difficult, but still daunting task is to determine the various sizes of an atom when it is in different compounds, and find out if there is some predictable pattern.

Gases seem to be an unusual condition for atoms, so until it has been determined just what that condition is, it is not possible to include them in a sizing study with liquids and solids. The behavior of gases is very predictable as shown by Dalton’s and Henries’ laws. Such predictability shows that gases must be very similar in how they are constructed. It is entirely possible that a breakthrough in atom sizing could come from this predictable behavior. Simple sizing based on mass and magnetic moment does not work for gases, so some other method will have to be developed to quantify their sizes. I fully expect there to be a maximum volume that gases can fill if their motions can be halted. Alternatively, if there is a physical reason for the motion other than temperature then divining that reason is most important for determining gas construction.

Size determinations for liquid and solid elements should be possible if the sizes of atoms can be determined using a spin dominated approach—similar to how single particles are calculated—by first applying it to single elements and then two-atom or three-atom molecules. Even more complicated constructions should be predictable if the approach works. The spin is calculated from an equation using a small “s”, where a large “S” is the new spin value, with the initial value for “S” being h-bar. The number “s” then is an integer series, determined by Max Planck, where the equation is S = h-bar*(s*s+1)^0.5.

Once a molecule has been formed, such as water, the two different atoms comprising it change size based on a temperature to size ratio know as the “coefficient of thermal expansion” alpha. Unfortunately, as oxygen combines with other elements the value of alpha changes, producing different results for different combinations of atoms that include oxygen. This same thing is true for any element. Luckily, the range of temperature from absolute zero to room temperature, approximately 298 degrees Celsius/Rankin, produces only a slight volumetric change, and can essentially be ignored for rough calculations. It is a simple formula to calculate temperature changes and can always be added as a final size adjustment.

Initial attempts at sizing atoms show that nearly all atoms must be created from combinations of components to achieve the size and magnetic moment values required. No single process can be used for all atoms due to the inclusion of neutral particles that do not fit the same fully definable mold as charged particles, and the fact that different size constituents are involved. Many atoms can be constructed using an unaltered size, which ignores the magnetic moment shrinkage universally associated with single spin-1/2 particles. This could be due to at least one of the charged particles not contracting, which means that one or another of the remaining particles would have to supply the bulk of the calculated magnetic moment. Since neutral particles have magnetic moments too, all of the components must be added or subtracted to achieve the measured value.

Although spin-1/2 particles are sized based on a reduction that is dictated by the magnetic moment anomaly, this does not seem to be true of higher spin types. Initial calculations put higher spin atom sizes at unaltered (ideal) sizes based solely on the simple equation R = fx*Cc/(2pi), where R is the atom radius, fx is the frequency (equivalent to the mass), and Cc is the ultrawave velocity of 8.936E+16 m/s. As shown in the table in the book “Ultrawave Theory”, spin-1/2 atoms that are thought to be single particles prove not to conform to the sizing of single spin-1/2 particles like the electron or proton unless the magnetic moment is ignored. A spin dominated approach seems to give answers that are close to those expected for higher spin atoms, so it is not necessary to abandon all hope for spin. It may be that the single spin-1/2 particle sizing is wrong, which would only change the sizes of the electron, proton and neutron given in the book, and not negate the theory.

Determining atom sizes was not expected to be easy; otherwise it would have been done better through conventional means. The Standard Model has very little predictive ability in determining atom sizes, and relies mostly on empirical data. Unfortunately, that may also be true of ultrawave theory. Most of what the Standard Model has divined over the past century is fairly close to the actual state of reality; it is just overly-complicated mathematics and misguided explanations that are its faults. Now that it has been shown that ultrawaves of high velocity can provide an explanation for all matter and energy behavior, it is only a matter of time until the construction of all conglomerations of mass will be fully explainable. It won’t be an easy task, but it will be possible when the right approach is found.